How to analyse structure for GCSE English Language
The GCSE English Language structure question is often more confusing for students than analysing language techniques.
This question is on both AQA and Edexcel exam papers and the skill is the same. This post will focus on how writers use structure in fiction.
AO2 assessment objective:
Explain, comment on and analyse how writers use language and structure to achieve effects and influence readers, using relevant subject terminology to support their views
What is structure?
Structure is the organisation of a text. It refers to what is revealed, where, when and how. These structural elements are arranged in a way to guide readers through the story so that they understand what is happening and are interested and engaged throughout.
Understanding how structure works in fiction texts essentially involves learning how stories are organised by the writer to keep the reader turning the page. So, let us start at the very beginning…
What is a story?
The story is what happens to the main character(s). Another word for character is protagonist.
What is a plot?
Plot is a sequence of related events that make up a story. What characters do and what happens to them, make up the plot.
Traditional narrative structure
Traditional narrative structures have a beginning, middle and end. This type of structure is familiar to us because it mirrors our lives: we are born (beginning); we grow to become an adult (middle); we age and become old and then we die (end).
We can zoom in on our day-to-day lives and notice that they also follow the same structure.
This is called a linear structure or chronological structure.
Traditional fairy stories such as Cinderella and Little Red Riding Hood also follow this structure.
Within these traditional structures things happen in our lives (events) that make our lives more interesting. Events and experiences happen, that in the end, make us grow as human beings because we learn from our experiences.
Example
Woke up. Had a shower and got dressed.
Went to college.
Had to deliver a presentation to class.
Had a panic attack.
Calmed down and did the presentation.
Presentation was a success.
Gained confidence by facing my fears.
Freytag Pyramid
Most modern stories follow following traditional narrative structure, also known as the Freytag Pyramid:
Freytag Pyramid
Introduction (exposition)
This is where readers are introduced to the main characters, the setting, time, tone or mood, and the conflict.
Complication (inciting incident)
Something within the main character (protagonist) or something external propels them into action.
Rising action
The story builds in action towards the climax.
Climax
The climax occurs in the middle of the story. Things start to go wrong, if things have been going well for the character, and things start to get better if they have been going wrong for the character.
Resolution
The conflict is resolved, sometimes with a happy ending, or it can end on a cliff-hanger.
For the language paper, you are only analysing an extract rather than the whole novel or short story. Therefore, it is important to look at how the extract starts and how it ends. For example, look for any changes in mood, pace, repetition of ideas, images, a build up to a climax. Does it start and end in the same way? This is called a cyclical structure.
Character
Every story needs a character(s) because stories are about events that happen to a character or characters. Writers attempt to make their characters believable by giving us access to their thoughts, feelings and motivations. Once we like a character or feel connected to the character in some way, we become engaged and interested in what happens to them, which in turn makes the reader have empathy for the character.
When a writer introduces a new character, this piques the reader’s interest and engages the reader because we want to know who the new character is and why they have been introduced.
Setting
The setting is where the story takes place, and it can be used to highlight contrasts or parallels, set the mood or tone of the extract or reflect the mood or feelings of the character.
Conflict and contrast (juxtaposition)
To engage a reader’s attention and to hold their interest, conflict and contrast is often used to build dramatic tension. For example, conflict between siblings, friends etc.
Conflict is a writer’s main tool for building their story, and it drives the plot forward. All stories have some form of conflict, and it is what creates narrative tension, and makes the story more interesting by leaving questions for the reader, keeping them turning the page.
Contrast in characters is used to show different viewpoints and behaviour.
Creating conflict will start the action; characters trying to resolve the conflict throughout the story, maintains the reader’s interest.
Conflict in fiction is the struggle between two opposing forces. The classic example is good versus evil. Conflict falls into two categories: internal and external.
Internal conflict is the struggle a character experiences within themselves. Whereas external conflict is the struggle a character experiences in the world, which can take the form of people, institutions and the environment, for example.
Time
How does the writer use time to reveal the events that happen in the story? Does the writer use flashbacks or a linear or non-linear structure? Flashbacks are used to delay revealing important information immediately. To go back in time, takes the reader away from current events of the story as they unfold, delaying our gratification and feeding our curiosity. Flashbacks are also used to provide a backstory about the characters.
Tense
The use of the present tense in fiction helps to create a feeling of immediate action and urgency as the events unfold in what feels like real time. This technique works to hook the reader and create suspense. It also works to forge a connection between the reader and the main character as they are taken on a rollercoaster journey of emotions along with the first-person narrator.
Medias Res - in the middle of the action
Medias res is a Latin term, which means in the ‘midst of things.’
Readers are plunged into the middle of the action, for example, a murder takes place at the beginning of the story. This is designed to capture the reader’s attention and keep them interested in anticipation to find out who’s the murderer, why it happened and how it will end.
Direct speech (dialogue)
If a narrative only has description, this can be difficult to sustain the reader’s interest, but it also prevents the reader from getting to know the characters in the story.
Direct speech of the characters allows the reader to understand what the characters are like: how they behave, what they think and what their relationship is like with the other characters in the story. This helps to create believable characters whom the readers will have empathy or sympathy for in the story.
Zooming in and out
Zooming in and out is a common technique for descriptive writing. The writer role is similar to a film director in that it directs readers’ focus like a camera, which works to create the feeling of the reader moving from one character or object to another.
For example, an establishing shot of a beach would capture the entire beach with the sun, sea and sand. Then the filmmaker would zoom in a specific detail, for example, the waves and then move the camera to the sand and then perhaps one of the characters in the film. The same techniques are used when we read fiction and are designed to keep the reader interested in the events that are to unfold in the story.
Narrative perspective
Narrative perspective is who is telling the story. Writers deliberately choose whether to write in the first, second or third person. Each perspective has a different effect on the reader. The main narrative viewpoints are first person, third person and second person.
First person
The story is told from the point of view (POV) of the main character.
This narrative perspective creates a more intimate effect and writers use this when they want to evoke empathy in the reader and make them feel or experience the events in the story through the main protagonist.
This perspective is limited because we only experience the story through the main character, and we do not get an insight into the thoughts and feelings of other characters.
Second person
The second person narrative perspective brings the reader into the story to create an interactive experience. It directly addresses the reader by using the pronoun ‘you’, suggesting the reader is involved in the narrative as either a protagonist or a character as the events seem to be happening to the reader.
Third person limited
The narrator closely follows one character, typically the main character, throughout the story, and knows his or her thoughts and feelings.
Third person omniscient
Omniscient means ‘all knowing’, so in this perspective the narrator, who is not a character, knows the thoughts and feelings of all the characters in the story. Readers get to know the other characters and often know what’s going to happen to other characters before they do. Sometimes this adds excitement to the story, creating anticipation and suspense for the reader: When will the character find out? How will they react?
Sentences
Sentences are used to communicate information and ideas, and to add to the pace and feeling of a text.
There are four different types of sentences: command, question, statement and exclamation. However, these sentences can take the form of simple, compound, complex and compound-complex.
Sentences, for example, simple, compound and complex sentences are used to convey information and ideas, also to create effects or impressions on the reader.
Simple sentences
A simple sentence contains one subject (the noun or pronoun), which carries out the action and one verb (the action or state carried out by the subject).
Simple sentences express one idea or action. The effect of a simple sentence can be used to convey an idea or provide information in a clear and impactful way, so that it isn’t missed.
In fiction texts, simple sentences, followed by complex sentences are used to draw attention to an important piece of information, or to create tension and pace.
Compound sentences
Compound sentences are essentially two simple sentences joined together with a coordinating conjunction: for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so. (FANBOYS)
This sentence type expresses two ideas or pieces of information, which are of equal importance. Depending on the conjunction used, the compound expands on the idea in the first part of the independent clause. For example, the conjunction ‘but’ signals a contrast in idea or information and ‘and’ provides additional information.
Complex sentences
A complex sentence is formed with independent (main) and dependent (subordinate) clauses. The dependent clause provides further explanation or adds further detail of the independent clause.
In fiction, the use of long complex sentences is often used to convey further detail, describe or expand on an idea or feeling. It is also used to slow down the pace of writing to build up to a dramatic scene.
Lists
The use of list often adds to emphasise feelings, ideas or descriptions which is structured to give the reader more detailed insight.
Paragraphs
How writers structure their paragraphs plays a significant role in structure. Each paragraph in a piece of fiction has a specific focus. Writers start new paragraphs when there is a change in topic or idea, time, place, person is speaking or being described.
Writers also use paragraphs to direct the reader’s focus. This could be to focus on description, dialogue, setting or internal thoughts of the character.
At times, writers will only have a single line paragraph. This will be deliberately crafted to draw the reader’s attention to, or emphasise, an idea or piece of important information, or to show a contrast in idea, character, mood and so on.
Changing the focus of paragraphs helps to keep readers interested and engaged. In addition, it provides a sense of cohesion for the reader, so they have a sense of where they are being led as readers as they follow the clues and make predictions as to what is going to happen next.
Punctuation
Apart from the standard full stop and comma, other types or punctuation are used to make meaning clear, and so are used by writers to create particular effects when expressing meaning.
Exclamation marks are used to express feelings and emotions, but you will have to determine what those feelings and emotions are based on the context of the story.
Semicolons are used to separate longer items in a list and can be used instead of a full stop or a coordinating conjunction when the two clauses are closely related in terms of ideas and information.
Dashes are used for parenthesis to add extra information or to directly address the reader. Dashes are also used for asides – when the writer has had an additional thought. In this case, it is used in an informal way.
Colons provide additional information to expand upon the first main clause or sentence, and to offer or introduce an explanation or a statement. All of these types of punctuation are used to assist the writer in conveying their message or idea.
Questions can be used to show several things such as uncertainty, or how a character is feeling. Sometimes questions can be used to directly question the reader to engage them directly in the narrative.
Withholding information
Withholding information and raising questions is a key technique used to build suspense and pique readers’ curiosity, making them want to know what happens next.
Foreshadowing
Foreshadowing is when writers give readers a hint or warning of what is to come later in the story to create dramatic tension. It helps to develop readers’ expectations about forthcoming events.
Repetition / anaphora
The repetition of an idea or information is used to emphasise a point the writer wants to draw the reader’s attention to. In fiction, anaphora is the repetition of a word, or phrase at the beginning of clauses, sentences to create an emotional effect or reinforce a particular idea.
Independent study
Use the checklist below when analysing short stories to see if you can identify any or the elements.
Download this factsheet as a pdf
